INTRODUCTION

Livonian is a Finno-Ugric language, which along with the Samoyedic languages forms the Uralic language family. The Uralic language family consists of languages spoken across northeastern Europe and Siberia, reaching south to central Europe where Hungarian is spoken (see Figure 1). Livonian is indigenous to Latvia and belongs to the branch of the Finnic languages (Figure 2).

At the end of the prehistoric era, the Livonian language was spoken over a large area in the western part of the Central Baltic region. During the 12th century, the major Livonian settlements were situated in the central part of present-day Latvia on the banks of the important rivers of Daugava and Gauja, and the coast of the Gulf of Riga, north of Daugava up to the Estonian settlements. From the historical point of view, it is possible to differentiate the Livonian dialectal variations of Courland (Latvian Kurzeme) and Livonia (Latvian Vidzeme). However, Livonian language data have been systematically preserved from only two peripheral regions of the former Livonian language area – from the Salaca River region in northern Latvia and from Livonian villages in northern Courland. (see Figure 3)

Over time, Livonian areas gradually became Latvian-speaking. The next records of the Livonian language originate from the 17th century from the northernmost periphery of the historic Livonian settlement area near the river Salaca in northern Latvia and northern Courland. In the 19th century, Livonian had approximately 3000 speakers. After World War I, there were about 1500 Livonians. After World War II, around 800 Livonians were living in the coastal villages. However, after these lands were classified as Soviet border areas, most Livonians were forced to leave the coast to search for jobs. By the 21st century, approximately 200–250 people have self-identify as Livonians, most of whom live in Riga, Ventspils, and Kolka.

Livonian is listed in the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger as a critically endangered language (Moseley 2010). Presently there may be at best 20–30 people in the world who can communicate in Livonian. However, the number of individuals who have learned the basics of Livonian continues to increase. The people who speak Livonian well, include scientists and other interested individuals from research institutions around the world but who are not Livonians themselves; Livonian descendants who did not learn Livonian from their parents but from their grandparents; also, those who learned Livonian from a fluent older speaker (not a family member) and through self-study. Though the Livonian community is currently undergoing generational change, at this time it is still possible to find Livonian speakers who inherited their language from older generations of speakers.

The circumstances that led Livonian to the status of a minority language, can be summarized as follows:

• 1) A sharp decrease in population due to wars and epidemics, high mortality of children and young people,
• 2) World War I and World War II, deportations, escape elsewhere,
• 3) as a result of the exile, the younger generation of Livonians partially lost their language,
• 4) Livonian was spoken at home, it was hardly used in schools or churches, public events, community institutions,
• 5) lack of reading materials for native speakers,
• 6) general poverty in Livonian villages,
• 7) living under external pressure and mixing with Latvians,
• 8) hostile attitude of local pastors, landlords, and officials towards Livonians, Livonian was used as a spoken language in areas with mixed administration,
• 9) sometimes, parents did not speak Livonian with their children.

Taking into account that the Livonian community has been entirely bilingual at least since the end of the 19th century (Ernštreits 2012: 156) and has now experienced a complete language shift (Blumberga 2013: 194), the native language – as this term is traditionally understood – for the majority of Livonians is Latvian, or for a few of them possibly also some other language. Presently, Livonian is not inherited from generation to generation, it is not learned directly from one’s parents and it is not the daily language of interaction.

The special role of Livonian in Latvia is described in the Latvian Official Language Law as well as other significant national documents and normative acts. Over time, Livonian has grown into the modern Latvian culture, language, and nation far deeper and more firmly than any other language, culture, or nation in Latvia. Livonians are a part of the modern Latvian language, Latvian culture, and the culture of Latvia as a whole. It has become especially noticeable in recent years when – along with Latvian society becoming better informed about the Livonians – an increasing number of people have discovered their own Livonian roots.

An important aspect that makes Livonian stand out among the languages used in Latvia (and more broadly in the European Union) is the indigenous status ascribed to the Livonians and the Livonian language in a number of Latvian laws and their sections (first in Law 1991, following Law 1999 and Law 2021). The status of Livonian is singled out as “the Republic of Latvia is home to the Latvian nation, an ancient indigenous people– the Livonians, as well as national and ethnic groups” (Law 1991), “The State shall ensure the maintenance, protection, and development of the Livonian language as the language of the indigenous (autochthonous) population” (Law 1999), and “In the historical lands of Latvia, the Latvian nation was formed based on the culture and language of the Curonian, Latgalian, Selonian, and Semigallian peoples as well as the ancient indigenous people – the Livonians” (Law 2021). These Laws confirm the status of the Livonians as indigenous.

Knowledge about Livonian and proficiency in it is important for understanding the nature of Latvian, as both languages have influenced each other through longstanding contact. Though it has few speakers, Livonian is important for those researching Uralic languages, as it is unique and contains many ancient features. Likewise, language knowledge is fundamental for the Livonians themselves, as it has been precisely language that has always been at the foundation of their sense of identity. Presently, it is possible to learn Livonian through self-study, in courses, or at camps as well as at some universities.